UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  PUBLICATIONS. 


COLLEGE  OF  AGRICULTURE. 

AGRICULTURAL  EXPERIMENT  STATION. 


FOWL  CHOLERA 


By  ARCHIBALD  R.  WARD. 


BULLETIN   No.   156 

(Berkeley,  April,  1904.) 


SACRAMENTO: 

W.    W.    SHANNON,      I      I      '.      '.      '.     SUPERINTENDENT    STATE  PRINTING. 

1904. 


BENJAMIN  IDE  WHEELER,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  President  of  the  University. 

EXPERIMENT  STATION  STAFF. 

E.  W.  HILGARD,  Ph.D.,  LL.D.,  Director  and  Chemist. 

E.  J.  WICKSON,  M.A.,  Horticulturist,  and  Superintendent  of  Central  Station  Grounds. 

W.  A.  SETCHELL,  Ph.D.,  Botanist. 

ELWOOD  MEAD,  M.S.,  C.E.,  Irrigation  Engineer. 

R.  H.  LOUGHRIDGE,  Ph.D.,  Agricultural  Geologist  and  Soil  Physicist.    (Soils  and  Alkali.) 

C.  W.  WOODWORTH,  M.S.,  Entomologist. 

M.  E.  JAFFA,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist.    (Foods,  Nutrition.) 

G.  W.  SHAW,  M.A.,  Ph.D.,  Assistant  Chemist.    (Starches,  Oils,  Beet-Sugar.) 

GEORGE  E.  COLBY,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist.    (Fruits,   Waters,  Insecticides.) 

RALPH  E.  SMITH,  B.S.,  Plant  Pathologist. 

A.  R.  WARD,  B.S.A.,  D.V.M.,  Veterinarian,  Bacteriologist. 

E.  H.  TWIGHT,  B.Sc,  Diplome"  E.A.M.,  Viticulturist. 

E.  W.  MAJOR,  B.Agr.,  Animal  Industry. 

A.  V.  STUBENRAUCH,  M.S.,  Assistant  Horticulturist,  in  charge  of  Substations. 

H.  J.  QTJAYLE,  A.B.,  Assistant  Entomologist. 

WARREN  T.  CLARKE,  B.S.,  Assistant  Field  Entomologist. 

H.  M.  HALL,  M.S.,  Assistant  Botanist. 

GEORGE  ROBERTS,  M.S.,  Assistant  Chemist,  in  charge  Fertilizer  Control. 

C.  A.  TRIEBEL,  Ph.G.,  Assistant  in  Agricultural  Laboratory. 

C.  A.  COLMORE,  B.S.,  Clerk  to  the  Director. 


EMIL  KELLNER,  Foreman  of  Central  Station  Grounds. 

JOHN  TUOHY,  Patron,  ) 

•   Tulare  Substation,  Tulare. 
JULIUS  FORRER,  Foreman,  J 

J.  E.  McCOMAS,  Patron,  Pomona, 

J.  W.  MILLS,  Superintendent,  Ontario,  )•  Southern  California  Substation. 

JOHN  H.  BARBER,  Assistant  Superintendent,  Ontario, 

A.  A.  KNOWLTON,  Patron, 

J.  H.  OOLEY,  Workman  in  charge, 

ROY  JONES,  Patron, 

WM.  SHUTT,  Forema 

H.  O.  WOODWORTH,  M.S.,  Foreman  of  Poultry  Station,  Petaluma 


[■  University  Forestry  Station,  Chico. 


[   University  Forestry  Station,  Santa  Monica. 
WM.  SHUTT,  Foreman,     \ 


The  Station  publications  (Reports  and  Bulletins),  so  long  as  avail- 
able, will  be  sent  to  any  citizen  of  the  State  on  application. 


FOWL  CHOLERA. 

By  ARCHIBALD  R.  WARD. 


The  importance  of  the  poultry  industry  in  California  has  occasioned  a  demand  for 
the  investigation  of  the  problems  of  poultry  management.  In  response,  the  Legisla- 
ture of  1903  appropriated  five  thousand  dollars  ($5,000)  to  be  expended  by  the  Regents 
of  the  University  of  California  for  this  purpose,  in  the  manner  indicated  in  the  follow- 
ing quotations  from  the  Act: 

Section  1.  There  is  hereby  established  in  the  County  of  Sonoma,  at  or  near  the  City 
of  Petaluma,  a  poultry  experiment  station,  to  be  known  as  the  "California  Poultry 
Experiment  Station." 

Sec  2.  The  purposes  of  said  station  shall  be  the  study  of  the  diseases  of  poultry  to 
ascertain  the  causes  of  such  diseases,  and  to  recommend  treatment  for  the  prevention 
and  cure  of  the  same ;  to  ascertain  the  relative  value  of  poultry  foods  for  the  production 
of  flesh,  fat,  eggs,  and  feathers ;  to  recommend  methods  of  sanitation,  and  to  conduct 
investigations  for  the  purpose  of  securing  results  conducive  to  the  promotion  of  the 
poultry  interests  of  the  State.  This  Act  shall  be  liberally  construed  to  the  end  that  the 
station  hereby  established  may  at  all  times  contribute  to  the  technical  and  general 
knowledge  of  the  public  upon  the  subject  of  poultry  husbandry. 

Sec.  3.  The  said  station  shall  be  under  the  supervision  of  the  Director  of  the  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Stations  of  the  State  of  California,  who  shall,  from  time  to  time, 
cause  to  be  issued  bulletins  of  information  regarding  the  care  of  poultry. 


Poultrymen  in  the  United  States  frequently  report  losses  from  fowl 
cholera,  but  nevertheless  very  few  opportunities  to  make  careful  study  of 
an  outbreak  have  been  afforded  to  those  charged  with  the  duty  of  publish- 
ing information  on  the  prevention  of  poultry  diseas.es.  Salmon1,  about 
1880,  reported  a  disease  in  South  Carolina,  which  he  believed  to  be 
identical  with  the  fowl  cholera  of  Europe,  described  earlier  by  Perron- 
cito2,  Pasteur3,  and  others.  The  undeveloped  condition  of  methods  of 
bacteriological  investigation  at  the  time  prevented  that  writer  from 
furnishing  conclusive  evidence  of  the  identity  of  the  European  and 
American  diseases.  Moore4,  about  1894,  obtained  sick  and  dead  birds  from 
three  outbreaks  of  a  disease  popularly  called  fowl  cholera,  but  found  that 
the  disease  observed  by  him  was  not  the  fowl  cholera  of  Europe.  Some 
time  afterward  he  published5  a  description  of  this  new  disease,  giving  it 
the  name  infectious  leukaemia.  Higgins6  in  Canada  reported  an  out- 
break of  the  true  European  fowl  cholera.  Friedberger  and  Frohner7 
(Hayes  translation)  use  the  names  fowl  cholera  and  fowl  typhoid 
interchangeably,  in  their  description  of  the  disease  more  commonly 
known  by  the  first  designation.  Curtice8  has  very  recently  published 
a  bulletin  dealing  with  the  disease  described  by  Moore,  but  calls  it  fowl 


4  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

typhoid.  The  essential  facts  concerning  the  symptoms  and  recognition 
of  these  two  diseases  have  been  brought  together  in  chapters  of  a  book 
written  by  Moore9. 

In  America,  opportunities  for  making  an  accurate  diagnosis  of  fowl 
diseases,  reputed  to  be  "the  cholera,"  have  been  rare.  This  may  be 
charged  principally  to  the  familiar  disinclination  of  poultrymen  to 
admit  the  existence  of  disease  among  their  stock.  Neither  of  the 
American  writers  on  fowl  cholera,  cited  above,  report  field  trials  of 
repressive  measures. 

Fowl  Cholera  in  California. — In  October,  1903,  a  poultryman  reported 
to  the  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  that  severe  losses  from  "the 
cholera"  were  occurring  upon  his  own  and  other  ranches  in  Marin 
County.  The  presence  of  the  disease  was  brought  to  his  notice, three 
weeks  before  by  twelve  dead  hens  being  found  under  the  roosts  on  one 
morning.  On  the  second  day  as  many  more  were  found,  after  which, 
deaths  practically  ceased  for  a  week,  when  losses  again  occurred  at  the 
rate  of  from  six  to  ten  a  day.  In  the  three  weeks  from  the  start  the 
disease  had  spread  to  four  adjoining  colonies,  and  about  one  hundred 
fowls  had  died  during  the  time. 

The  request  of  the  poultryman  for  advice  was  met  by  an  extended 
visit  at  the  ranch  to  study  the  nature  of  the  disease  and  to  suggest 
repressive  measures.  The  symptoms  of  the  sick  fowls,  the  internal 
alterations  resulting  from  the  disease,  and  a  bacteriological  examination 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  the  true  fowl  cholera  had  been  encountered. 
The  serious  foothold  already  gained  among  five  colonies,  comprising 
nine  hundred  fowls,  necessitated  prompt  action  to  prevent  its  spread  to 
the  remaining  two  thousand  fowls. 

The  poultry  ranch  in  question  was  stocked  with  about  three  thousand 
fowls  distributed  over  several  hundred  acres  of  land  in  colonies  con- 
taining about  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  fowls.  Each  colony  was 
supplied  with  roosting  houses,  a  laying  house,  a  grain-feeding  hopper, 
feeding  troughs,  and  drinking-water  fountain.  The  several  colonies 
were  near  enough  together  so  that  those  hens  venturing  farthest  abroad 
during  the  day  would  intermingle  with  those  from  other  colonies — a 
fact  of  significance  in  relation  to  the  spread  of  the  disease.  The  writer 
has  observed  hens  to  go  several  colonies  from  home,  attracted  by  the 
feed  in  the  wagon  from  which  the  daily  rations  were  distributed. 

An  experiment  was  performed  to  determine  the  length  of  time  elaps- 
ing between  exposure  to  infection  and  death.  Ten  cockerels  were 
selected  from  one  of  the  colonies  that  was  free  from  disease,  and,  as 
subsequent  events  proved,  so  remained.  All  were  placed  in  a  crate, 
and  were  allowed  to  eat  freely  of  the  entrails  and  flesh  of  a  fowl  dead 
of  the  cholera.     The  dates  <>f  death  are  recorded  in  the  following  table: 


FOWL    CHOLERA. 


TABLE  I. 


Deaths  After  Eating  Infectious  Material. 

Fed  viscera  of  dead  fowls  on  October  11. 

Date  of  Death. 

No.  1 October  12,  early  in  morning. 

No.  2 October  13,  5  p.  m. 

No.  3 October  17. 

No.  4 October  13,  early  in  morning. 

No.  5 October  12,  1  p.  m. 

No.  6 October  15,  during  night. 

No.  7 October  13,  during  night. 

No.  8 October  16. 

No.  9 October  14,  8  a.  m. 

No.  10 October  12,  1  p.  m. 

As  each  one  died  an  examination  of  the  internal  organs  was  made, 
and  conditions  were  found  identical  with  cases  that  contracted  the  dis- 
ease naturally.  The  experiment  shows  that  the  disease  is  very  rapidly 
fatal,  a  large  percentage  dying  within  three  days  after  exposure.  The 
results  demonstrate  most  emphatically  the  necessity  for  the  immediate 
disposal  of  dead  fowls  to  prevent  the  infection  of  other  fowls  by  eating 
their  carcasses. 

Prevention  must  be  the  fundamental  idea  of  all  methods  of  deal- 
ing with  an  infectious  disease  like  fowl  cholera.  In  consequence, 
measures  directed  against  it  must  be  based  upon  a  knowledge  of 
the  ways  by  which  it  is  naturally  spread  from  one  individual  to 
another.  The  fact  that  the  blood  at  death  teems  with  the  bacteria 
of  fowl  cholera  signifies  that  any  part  of  the  flesh  or  entrails  is  danger- 
ous to  other  fowls  when  eaten.  This  fact  was  demonstrated  in  the 
experiment  with  the  cockerels,  all  of  which  died  within  a  week  after 
eating  entrails  of  dead  fowls.  The  occurrence  of  extensive  alterations 
in  the  walls  of  the  intestine  permits  the  mixture  of  blood  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  intestine.  Consequently  the  bacteria  of  the  disease  are 
present  in  the  manure,  thus  rendering  it  a  most  serious  factor  in  the 
spread  of  the  disease.  The  probability  of  this  material  being  mixed 
with  the  food  by  the  feet  is  always  to  be  considered. 

Another  way  by  which  a  sick  fowl  may  spread  disease  is  by  means  of 
the  liquid  that  drips  from  the  beak  in  some  cases.  As  sick  fowls  are 
thirsty  and  frequently  drink,  there  is  opportunity  of  contaminating  the 
drinking  water.  Since  all  sick  fowls  are  a  source  of  danger  to  others 
their  immediate  slaughter  is  imperatively  necessary. 

Measures  designed  to  control  the  various  sources  of  infection  were 
put  into  operation  as  promptly  as  circumstances  indicated  the  necessity 
for  them.  No  information  was  available  concerning  the  relative  impor- 
tance of  the  various  possible  sources  of  infection.  Consequently  the 
preventive  measures  were  experimental  in  nature  to  a  certain  extent 
and  were  elaborated  somewhat  from  time  to  time.  Table  II,  on  page 
9,  shows  the  date  of  inauguration  of  the  various  measures,  with  their 
apparent  effect  upon  the  death-rate. 


6  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

The  infectious  nature  of  the  disease  indicated  the  necessity  for 
thorough  and  frequent  spraying  of  poultry  houses  with  some  substance 
capable  of  destroying  the  bacteria  of  the  disease  and  of  minimizing  the 
number  of  parasites  that  might  spread  the  infection.  A  mixture  of 
crude  carbolic  and  crude  sulfuric  acids  was  used  for  some  time,  but  later 
the  sulfuric  acid  was  replaced  by  phenolene.  It  was  deemed  best  to 
spray  all  of  the  poultry  houses  on  the  ranch  daily,  without  reference 
to  the  distribution  of  the  disease. 

Mr.  H.  0.  Woodworth,  foreman  of  the  California  Poultry  Experi- 
ment Station,  personally  took  charge  of  the  application  of  the  disin- 
fectant, and  the  enforcement  of  other  sanitary  measures.  He  kept  a 
record  of  the  death-rate,  and  from  time  to  time  changed  the  composition 
of  the  disinfectant.  Notes  on  the  sanitary  control  of  the  cholera, 
suggested  by  his  experience,  follow: 

"A  disinfecting  solution  recommended  in  publications  of  the  Bureau 
"of  Animal  Industry  was  selected  for  spraying  in  the  roosting  and 
"  laying  houses  to  destroy  the  infectious  material.  Dr.  D.  E.  Salmon 
"describes  its  preparation,  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  No.  24,  U.  S.  Depart- 
"ment  of  Agriculture,  as  follows: 

"'Crude  carbolic  acid,  -J  gallon;  crude  sulfuric  acid,  \  gallon.  These 
"  two  substances  should  be  mixed  in  tubs  or  glass  vessels.  The  sulfuric 
"  acid  is  very  slowly  added  to  the  carbolic  acid.  During  the  mixing  a 
"  large  amount  of  heat  is  developed.  The  disinfecting  power  is  height- 
"ened  if  the  amount  of  heat  is  kept  down  by  placing  the  tub  or 
"demijohn  containing  the  carbolic  acid  in  cold  water,  while  the  sulfuric 
"  acid  is  being  added.  The  resulting  mixture  is  added  to  water  in  the 
"  ratio  of  1  to  20.  One  gallon  of  mixed  acid  will  thus  furnish  twenty 
"gallons  of  a  strong  disinfecting  solution,  having  a  slightly  milky 
"appearance.' 

"A  small  bucket  spray-pump  was  used  to  apply  the  disinfectant. 
"The  spraying  outfit,  together  with  a  barrel  of  the  disinfectant,  was 
"moved  on  a  sled  from  one  colony  to  another.  The  liquid  was  sprayed 
"upon  the  floor,  side  walls,  and  perches  of  the  roosting  houses  and 
"  upon  the  floor,  and  side  walls  up  to  the  nest,  of  the  egg  houses.  The 
"ground  was  sprayed  for  several  feet  around  the  houses.  Especial 
"  care  was  paid  to  the  shady  side  where  the  chickens  spent  considerable 
"time  during  the  day.  The  infected  colonies  were  all  sprayed  daily 
"from  the  9th  to  the  15th  of  October  inclusive.  All  the  other  colonies 
"were  sprayed  daily  except  Sunday. 

"On  the  16th,  it  was  decided  to  change  the  spraying  solution,  on 
"account  of  several  objectionable  features  of  the  one  in  use.  The 
"spray  affected  the  eyes  so  that  the  man  doing  the  work  could  not  go 
"into  the  houses  and  do  as  thorough  work  as  should  be  done.  Further, 
"the  mixture  made  the  hands  sore,  ruined  clothing,  and  destroyed  the 
"rubber  hose  used  on  the  spraying  pump  after  a  few  days'  use. 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  / 

"Crude  carbolic  acid  alone  was  then  used  in  a  strength  of  one  gallon 
'  to  twenty  gallons  of  water.  The  houses  of  the  infected  colonies  were 
'  sprayed  with  this  mixture  from  the  16th  to  the  20th  inclusive,  the 
'houses  of  the  other  fowls  being  sprayed  on  the  17th  and  19th  only 
1  during  the  same  period.  It  was  found  very  difficult  to  keep  the  mix- 
'  ture  sufficiently  agitated  to  insure  a  uniform  spray,  so  another  change 
'  was  made  on  the  21st. 

"The  mixture  next  adopted  consisted  of  one-half  gallon  each  of 
'  phenolene  and  crude  carbolic  acid  to  twenty  gallons  of  water.  This 
'  proved  satisfactory,  except  that  it  injured  the  hose  somewhat. 

"To  spray  the  sixty  houses  and  surroundings  thoroughly  once  re- 
1  quired  forty  gallons  of  disinfectant.  To  make  this  amount  there  were 
'used  one  gallon  of  sulfuric  acid  at  60  cents,  and  one  gallon  of  crude 
'carbolic  acid  at  50  cents.  Thus  the  expense  for  material  was  $1.10, 
'  or  slightly  less  than  2  cents  a  house  per  day.  To  do  the  same  work 
'using  crude  carbolic  acid  alone,  costs  $1  a  day.  The  last  mixture 
'used,  and  which  experience  showed  to  be  the  best  to  handle,  is  the 
'  cheapest.  This  mixture  costs  50  cents  for  the  gallon  of  crude  carbolic 
'  acid,  and  20  cents  for  the  gallon  of  phenolene.  The  daily  expense  per 
'house  with  the  carbolic-phenolene  mixture  was  thus  a  trifle  over  one 
'  cent.  The  spraying  was  continued  twenty-five  days,  and  the  expense 
'for  all  the  materials  for  this  time  was  $21.10.  Had  the  carbolic- 
'  phenolene  mixture  been  used  for  the  whole  time  the  expense  would 
'have  been  $17.50.  The  carbolic-sulfuric  mixture  would  have  cost 
'$27  for  the  same  length  of  time.  The  labor  required  to  spray  sixty 
'  houses  each  day  consumed  four  hours'  time  for  two  men  and  a  team." 
The  roosting  houses  were  cleaned  once  a  week,  and  the  manure  was 
placed  in  a  part  of  the  ranch  where  there  would  be  no  possibility  for  it 
to  contribute  to  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

When  fowls  are  fed  from  open  troughs,  or  when  the  feed  is  placed 
directly  on  the  ground,  there  is  a  strong  probability  that  the  feed  may 
become  contaminated  from  the  droppings  of  sick  birds.  The  prac- 
tice of  feeding  from  open  troughs  was  discontinued.  Troughs  were 
made  so  as  to  permit  the  fowls  to  reach  the  head  in,  but  to  prevent  the 
feet  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  feed. 

On  account  of  the  danger  to  the  fowls  from  the  contaminated  ground 
about  the  houses,  the  five  infected  colonies  were  moved  on  October  14th 
to  another  part  of  the  ranch. 

The  practice  of  slaughtering  all  hens  sick  of  the  cholera  was  inaugu- 
rated promptly;  but  as  the  disease  was  noticeable  for  only  a  short  time 
before  death,  many  had  opportunity  to  spread  infection  before  detec- 
tion. On  October  17th  (see  Table  II)  it  was  decided  to  kill  every  hen 
that  showed  the  slightest  symptoms  of  any  sort  of  disease.  It  was 
found  very  desirable  to  visit  the  roosting  houses  at  daybreak,  for  at  that 
time  the  sick  ones  are  almost  certain  to  be  found  lingering  in  the  houses. 


8  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

The  early  visit  also  permitted  the  collection  of  the  dead  before  the  liv- 
ing could  become  infected  by  eating  portions  of  them.  For  the  purpose 
of  restricting  the  possibility  of  fowls  becoming  infected  from  the  drop- 
pings in  the  houses  before  the  daily  spraying,  it  was  made  the  practice 
to  drive  out  the  hens  early  in  the  morning  and  to  shut  the  doors  until 
after  the  spraying. 

The  dead  were  burned  or  buried  deeply,  as  convenient.  Scrupu- 
lous care  was  exercised  to  dispose  of  the  dead  before  the  living  fowls 
could  molest  them. 

A  number  of  fowls  among  those  frequenting  the  vicinity  of  the  house 
and  barns  were  lost  from  the  cholera.  Two  turkeys  also  died  within  a 
few  hours  after  they  were  first  noticed  to  be  sick.  These  birds  had 
abundant  opportunity  to  catch  the  disease  from  sick  and  dead  ones 
brought  from  the  infected  colonies.  The  few  fowls  about  the  house 
were  caught  and  placed  with  one  of  the  infected  colonies. 

On  October  20th  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  place  in  the  drinking 
water  some  substance  known  to  be  fatal  to  the  fowl  cholera  bacteria  and 
thus  insure  drinking  water  free  from  danger  of  communicating  the  dis- 
ease. It  was  decided  to  use  corrosive  sublimate  in  the  drinking  water 
of  the  infected  colonies,  as  suggested  by  Ritzer10.  That  substance  is  a 
violent  poison  to  most  creatures,  and  there  was  some  fear  that  it  would 
have  an  undesirable  effect  upon  the  egg  yield,  if  no  worse  would  result. 
Stoneware  drinking  fountains  were  used,  because  the  corrosive  sublimate 
would  have  combined  chemically  with  the  metal  drinking  fountains  in 
common  use.  For  convenience  in  making  up  the  solution  of  the  desired 
strength,  corrosive  sublimate  and  ammonium  chlorid  in  the  form  of 
compressed  antiseptic  tablets,  prepared  by  John  Wyeth  &  Bro.,  were 
used.  The  tablets  contain  such  an  amount  of  corrosive  sublimate  that 
one  tablet  in  a  pint  of  water  makes  a  1  to  1000  solution,  making  the 
preparation  of  a  solution  of  any  weaker  strength  a  simple  matter. 

Mr.  H.  0.  Woodworth  has  written  the  following  paragraph,  giving 
information  regarding  the  strength  of  corrosive  sublimate  solution  used: 

"  Corrosive  sublimate  in  the  strength  of  1  part  to  1000  parts  of  water 
"  (16  tablets  to  a  2-gallon  drinking  fountain)  was  used  on  October  21st, 
"but  it  was  observed  that  the  chickens  did  not  drink  freely  of  the 
"  mixture.  The  next  day  13  tablets  to  the  2-gallon  fountain  were  used, 
"  which  mixture  the  fowls  drank  more  freely.  Largely  from  fear  of 
"evil  consequences  of  the  use  of  a  strong  solution,  it  was  decided  to 
"further  dilute  the  corrosive  sublimate,  using  8  tablets  to  2  gallons  of 
"water,  or  a  dilution  of  1  to  2000  parts  of  water.  This  strength  of  solu- 
"tion  was  supplied  the  infected  colonies  on  October  25th  and  26th. 
"The  same  was  used  from  October  30th  to  November  5th  inclusive. 
"  No  injurious  effects  were  noted.  A  decrease  in  the  egg  yield  may  pos- 
"sibly  have  been  due  to  its  use  A  word  of  caution  should  be  uttered 
■  regarding  the  danger  of  too  free  use  of  corrosive  sublimate,  on  account 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  \) 

"of  its  poisonous  properties.  The  cost  of  purifying  the  water  with  cor- 
rosive sublimate  was  $7.59  for  the  whole  period." 

Corrosive  sublimate  was  used  in  the  drinking  water  solely  for  the 
purpose  of  killing  any  of  the  bacteria  of  fowl  cholera  that  might  gain 
access  to  it,  thereby  eliminating  one  of  the  possible  sources  of  infection. 
It  was  not  used  as  a  medicinal  remedy. 

The  control  of  the  drinking  water  of  the  fowls  is  a  comparatively 
simple  matter  in  the  dry  season.  An  outbreak  in  wet  weather  would 
present  much  more  serious  difficulties,  for  every  puddle  of  water  on  the 
ground  is  more  than  liable  to  be  contaminated  from  the  droppings. 
Under  such  conditions  fowls  would  catch  the  disease  much  more  readily. 

The  writer  made  no  suggestions  regarding  the  character  of  the  feed 
to  be  supplied,  as  that  matter  was  regarded  as  having  no  bearing  upon 
the  problem. 

TABLE  II. 

Effect  of  Preventive  Measures  upon  Death-rate. 

Deaths  from 
Cholera,  including 
those  killed. 
Sept.  17.    Disease  first  appeared  in  one  colony. 

Oct.     7.    Now  involves  five  colonies.    Total  deaths  to  date,  about 100 

8.     48 

9.  Began  spraying  daily  and  killing  sick 22 

10.     34 

11.     26 

.12. 18 

13.     - 10 

14.  Moved  infected  colonies 10 

15.  Sanitary  feeding  troughs  first  used 10 

16.     ? 

17.  Began  slaughter  of  all  fowls  suspected  of  being  sick 12* 

18.     10* 

19.     6* 

20.  Corrosive  sublimate  first  used  in  drinking  water 7 

21. 2 

22.  7 

23.  4 

24.  4 

25.  3 

26.  2 

27.  2 

28.  1 

29.  4 

30.  1 

31.  3 

Nov.    1.  - 0 

2.     0 

3.     . 3 

4.     0 

5.  Stopped  sublimate  in  water.     Stopped  spraying. 

Total 349 

Since  beginning  preventive  measures 201 

*The  numbers  here  reported  refer  to  the  fowls  that  died  of  the  cholera.  On  the  same  days  55 
fowls  were  killed  by  the  owner  because  noticeably  sick  from  some  disease  not  determined.  As 
roup  was  prevalent  among  the  fowls  at  the  time,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  but  a  small 
percentage  of  those  killed  had  the  cholera. 


10  UNIVERSITY    OF   CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

A  study  of  the  daily  death-rate  in  its  relation  to  sanitary  measures 
brings  out  the  fact  of  the  efficiency  of  merely  destroying  the  sick  fowls 
and  then  disinfecting  thoroughly.  These  measures  alone  were  enforced 
until  the  daily  death-rate  dropped  to  10. 

It  would  be  unsafe  to  draw  conclusions  concerning  the  actual  benefit 
of  the  use  of  corrosive  sublimate,  for  during  its  use  extreme  vigilance 
was  exercised  to  weed  out  sick  fowls.  Moreover,  its  use  was  commenced 
about  the  time  when  the  beneficial  effects  of  disinfection  might  be 
expected  to  become  evident. 

Work  on  the  ranch  under  the  supervision  of  the  Experiment  Station 
was  discontinued  on  November  5th.  After  this  date  the  disinfection 
herein  described  was  not  carried  out.  Each  time  the  houses  were 
cleaned  the  floors  were  sprinkled  with  lime.  In  December  about 
twenty-five  fowls  were  lost.  Occasional  deaths  after  this  did  not  excite 
alarm  until  about  April  1st,  when  about  fifty  fowls  were  lost  in  a  few 
days  among  the  colonies  originally  infected  six  months  before.  This 
experience  illustrates  the  danger  of  relaxing  vigilance  in  dealing  with 
fowl  cholera.  Any  deaths  from  cholera  must  be  considered  alarming, 
for  without  repressive  measures  extensive  losses  are  liable  to  occur  at 
any  time.  A  mere  lowering  of  the  death-rate  furnishes  no  grounds  for 
a  feeling  of  security. 

At  the  present  writing  (April  4)  the  owner  has  decided  to  dispose  of 
the  remaining  fowls  in  the  infected  colonies,  which  will  eliminate  the 
danger  of  the  spread  of  the  disease. 

Spread  of  the  Disease. — The  spread  of  the  disease  across  the  country 
has  been  the  subject  of  some  speculation.  The  evidence  indicates  that 
the  movement  of  fowls  is  one  of  the  important  causes  of  the  introduc- 
tion of  the  cholera  into  flocks  where  it  was  hitherto  unknown.  The 
ranch  upon  which  the  Station  work  was  done  appears  to  have  become 
infected  from  an  adjoining  one  where  the  disease  existed,  for  the  trouble 
first  appeared  in  a  colony  nearest  to  the  second  ranch  and  where  fowls 
could  readily  intermingle.  A  third  ranch,  adjacent  to  both  of  these, 
had  been  stocked  with  fowls  purchased  in  a  locality  several  miles  dis- 
tant, where  cholera  was  known  to  have  been  seriously  prevalent. 

The  cholera  and  other  infectious  diseases  may  exist  in  a  fowl  in  a 
sort  of  inactive,  chronic  condition,  and  there  is  no  doubt  concerning 
the  agency  of  such  a  case  in  spreading  the  disease.  Thus,  fowls  not 
suspected  of  being  diseased  may  have  the  disease  smouldering  among 
them.  The  fact  that  occasionally  a  single  fowl  dies  of  cholera  means 
that  a  severe  loss  may  occur  at  any  time. 

The  possible  importance  of  pigeons  and  wild  birds  as  a  means  of 
-pi'adiug  contagion  is  worthy  of  consideration.  The  fact  that  pigeons 
contract  the  disease  and  die  has  been  demonstrated  in  an  experiment 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  11 

reported  on  page  19.  Earlier  writers  have  reported  that  many  differ- 
ent kinds  of  birds  are  susceptible  to  fowl  cholera. 

The  practice  of  throwing  dead  fowls  by  the  roadside  is  an.  important 
means  of  distributing  the  cholera.  When  the  disease  breaks  out  it  is 
not  uncommon  for  poultrymen  to  crate  their  fowls  and  take  them  to 
market.  Not  infrequently  fowls  die  during  the  trip  to  the  shipping 
point  and  are  thrown  out  by  the  driver.  Should  this  be  done  in  front 
of  a  poultry  ranch  it  is  very  liable  to  result  in  the  further  spread  of 
the  disease,  for  fowls  eagerly  eat  the  dead  ones.  The  presence  of  fowls 
dead  of  the  cholera  along  a  roadside  is  a  matter  of  common  observa- 
tion; two  instances  of  the  infection  of  poultry  •  ranches  from  this 
source  have  been  reported,  and  in  both  instances  outbreaks  involving 
serious  losses  have  resulted.  This  practice  is  prohibited  by  legislation 
in  Sonoma  County,  but  it  is  practically  impossible  to  secure  evidence 
to  convict  the  offenders. 

An  example  of  the  relation  of  a  stream  of  water  to  the  spread  of  fowl 
cholera  has  come  to  notice.  A  poultryman  whose  fowls  had  been  free 
from  the  disease  noticed  one  evening  that  several  dead  fowls  had 
drifted  ashore  from  the  creek  running  through  his  ranch.  The  next 
morning  the  carcasses  were  found  stripped  to  the  bone,  partly  eaten  by 
skunks  during  the  night,  and  later  by  chickens  from  a  nearby  colony. 
Fifty-eight  fowls  in  the  same  colony  died  during  a  day  and  a  night. 
The  entire  colony  was  disposed  of  promptly,  but  not  until  one  hundred 
had  died.  No  further  trouble  was  experienced.  At  least  two  ranches 
up  stream  were  known  to  be  infected  with  the  disease,  which  suggests 
an  explanation  for  the  presence  of  dead  fowls  in  the  stream. 

The  spread  of  the  cholera  on  a  ranch  is  often  greatly  hastened  by  the 
poultryman,  through  failure  to  recognize  the  necessity  for  isolating 
affected  fowls.  An  interesting  case  has  come  to  notice.  The  fowls  in  a 
colony  along  the  roadside  became  infected  from  dead  fowls  that  had 
been  thrown  into  the  ditch.  A  number  of  dead  fowls  from  that  colony 
were  brought  to  the  house,  where  they  were  allowed  to  remain  exposed 
long  enough  to  start  the  disease  among  the  two  hundred  fowls  frequent- 
ing the  vicinity  of  the  house.  With  the  hope  of  stopping  the  disease 
by  moving  these  fowls,  they  were  placed  in  a  colony  by  themselves. 
The  isolation  from  other  fowls  was  not  complete,  and  the  infection 
spread.  Disinfection  was  practiced  intermittently  and  the  dead  were 
not  gathered  up  promptly.  Six  months  after  the  introduction  of  the 
disease,  losses  continued.  The  owner  estimated  that  at  least  one  thou- 
sand fowls  had  died  during  the  period  mentioned. 

The  experience  of  another  poultryman  in  the  neighborhood  furnishes 
information  worthy  of  record.  After  having  his  stock  of  fowls  depleted 
by  the  ravages  of  the  disease,  he  determined  to  replace  the  losses  by 
purchase  of  healthy  fowls.     As  the  disease  existed  in  practically  every 


12  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT   STATION. 

colony  at  the  time,  the  problem  of  introducing  fresh  stock  was  a  serious 
one.  The  owner  decided  to  make  the  attempt  in  a  field  containing  three 
colonies  in  which  eight  hundred  and  seventy  fowls  had  been  lost  out  of 
thirteen  hundred  and  fifty  originally  there.  The  survivors  were  removed 
to  other  colonies  on  the  ranch.  The  houses  of  the  three  colonies  were 
cleaned,  whitewashed,  and  the  floors  sprayed  with  phenolene.  Each 
of  the  three  groups  of  houses  was  moved  about  two  hundred  yards  from 
its  former  location  and  was  left  untenanted  for  two  weeks.  Nine  hun- 
dred and  fifty  fowls  were  then  distributed  among  the  houses  and  no 
cholera  appeared  among  them.  That  the  field  in  question  was  quite 
isolated  from  other  infected  colonies  is  believed  to  be  another  factor 
that  contributed  to  the  happy  result. 

Symptoms. — The  yellow  color  of  the  droppings  is  the  first  noticeable 
symptom.  The  yellow  material  consists  of  the  kidney  excretion  (urates), 
which  is  apt  to  soil  the  feathers  covering  the  abdomen,  a  condition  that 
should  be  looked  for  in  suspected  cases.  Diarrhoea  appears  later.  The 
character  of  the  dung  varies  considerably  in  color  and  consistency. 
Sometimes  it  is  a  pasty,  greenish  mass,  or  a  brownish  red  mucus,  or  a 
viscous,  transparent  fluid.  The  yellow  color  of  the  urates  is  the  most 
noticeable  feature. 

The  sick  fowl  gives  evidence  of  its  condition  by  an  unnatural  atti- 
tude of  the  feathers,  and  by  a  disinclination  to  move  about  as  usual. 
None  were  observed  to  eat  during  the  later  stages  of  sickness.  Thirst 
is  frequently  present,  for  fowls  were  observed  to  drink  copiously  in  the 
advanced  stages  of  the  disease.  A  mucous  discharge  from  the  mouth 
was  occasionally  noticed.  Toward  the  end,  drowsiness  is  very  marked. 
The  temperature  in  advanced  stages  of  naturally  infected  cases  varies 
from  109°  to  112°  F.  (42.8°  to  44.4°  C).  The  temperatures  of  several 
fowls  inoculated  with  cultures  are  tabulated  below.  Nos.  1,  2,  and  3 
were  inoculated  subcutaneously  ten  hours  previous  to  taking  the  first 
temperature.  No.  4  was  inoculated  seventeen  hours  before  the  first 
temperature  was  taken.  In  each  case  death  occurred  during  the  night 
following  the  last  recorded  temperature,  except  in  the  case  of  No.  3, 
which  died  twenty-four  hours  later.  Approximately,  0.01  c.c.  of  a 
24-hour  bouillon  culture  was  injected  in  each  case. 

TABLE  III. 

Temperatures  of  Inoculation  Cases  of  Fowl  Cholera. 

No.  1. 
March  1.8,    9  a.  m 41.1°  C. 

10  a.  m 41.7 

11  a.  m 41.7 

12  m 42.3 

1  p.  m 48.0 


No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  4. 

41.3°  C. 

41.9°  C. 

43.4°  C, 

41.3 

41.7 

42.6 

41.3 

41.6 

43.2 

41.3 

41.(5 

44.1 

41.1 

41.8 

44.0 

FOWL    CHOLERA.  13 

TABLE  III— Continued. 
Temperature  of  Inoculation  Cases  of  Fowl  Cholera. 


No.  1. 

No.  2. 

No.  3. 

No.  l. 

March  18,    2 

p. 

M 

42.7°  C. 

41.0°  C. 

42.0°  C. 

43.8°  C 

3 

p. 
p. 

M. 

42.4 

40.4 
40.6 

42.0 
41.8 

43.6 

4 

M 

42.2 

5 

p. 

p. 
p. 

M. 

41.9 

40.6 
41.4 
41.2 

42.0 
42.0 
41.0 

6 

42.4 

7 

M 

42.2 

8 

p. 

M 

43.1 

41.6 

41.2 

March  19,  11 

A. 

M 

41.4 

43.0 

12 

A. 

M 

40.8 

42.7 

1 

P. 

M 

40.4 

42.6 

2 

P. 

M 

40.7 

42.4 

4 

P. 

M 

40.0 

42.8 

March  20,  10 

A. 

M 

42.8 

12 

M.. - 

42.2 

The  temperatures  observed  in  cases  1,  2,  and  3  rarely  were  high 
enough  to  be  regarded  as  febrile.  Numerous  observations  on  healthy 
fowls  show  that  the  normal  temperature  of  healthy  fowls  most  often 
lies  between  41.7°  C.  and  42.2°  C.  A  considerable  number  of  apparently 
healthy  fowls  exhibited  temperatures  as  high  as  42.8°  C.  No.  4  exhibited 
a  distinctly  febrile  condition,  and  corresponded  better  than  the  others 
with  the  temperatures  of  naturally  infected  fowls  observed  during  the 
study  of  the  disease  in  the  field. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  in  which  the  time  of  exposure  to  the  disease 
was  known,  death  occurred  within  three  days.  The  tabulated  results 
of  the  inoculation  of  fowls  by  the  ingestion  of  infectious  material,  page 
5,  show  that  the  incubation  period  may  be  as  short  as  eighteen  hours 
in  cases  infected  by  natural  means.  Sickness  was  seldom  noticed  more 
than  twenty-four  hours  previous  to  death.  All  the  cases  that  came 
under  the  writer's  observation  were  acute.  No  recoveries  were  noted. 
The  fact  that  more  deaths  occur  on  the  roosts  at  night  than  in  the  day 
time  was  noticeable. 

Fowl  cholera  can  not  be  certainly  recognized  by  the  poultryman 
without  the  aid  of  a  bacteriological  examination,  but  at  the  present  time 
this  fact  is  of  no  significance.  The  methods  of  combating  the  cholera 
are  practically  not  different  from  those  that  should  be  applied  in  the 
other  plagues  of  poultry  closely  resembling  fowl  cholera.  The  occur- 
rence of  numerous  sudden  deaths  among  fowls  is  indicative  of  an 
infectious  disease,  and  should  be  the  signal  for  the  inauguration  of 
sanitary  measures. 

Changes  observed  in  the  various  organs,  upon  post-mortem  examina- 
tion, are  comparatively  slight;  a  circumstance  not  surprising,  in  view 
of  the  brief  period  of  sickness.  A  technical  description  of  the  altera- 
tions, unprofitable  to  the  general  reader,  is  appended. 


14  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

OBSERVATIONS    UPON    THE    PATHOLOGY    OF    FOWL    CHOLERA. 

At  death,  or  some  hours  previous,  the  comb  frequently  takes  on  a 
dark  purple  color,  but  this  does  not  always  occur.  Very  often  the  comb 
is  pale  and  bloodless.  The  skin  of  the  breast  and  abdomen  is  fre- 
quently reddened. 

In  post-mortem  examinations  a  congestion  of  the  blood  vessels  of  the 
liver,  kidney,  mesentery,  or  intestines  is  noticeable  to  some  degree  in  all 
cases.  Punctiform  hemorrhages  are  found  upon  the  heart  with  almost 
absolute  uniformity.  The  liver  is  very  frequently  marked  with  puncti- 
form whitish  areas  of  necrosis.  Stained  sections  show  these  necrotic 
foci  throughout  the  substance  of  the  liver,  and  besides  reveal  a  conges- 
tion of  the  blood  vessels  of  that  organ.  The  next  most  striking  lesions 
occur  in  the  first  and  second  duodenal  flexures.  The  mucosa  is  deeply 
reddened  and  studded  with  hemorrhages  varying  in  size,  but  seldom 
exceeding  one  millimeter  in  diameter.  These  involve  the  intestinal 
coats  to  an  extent  that  makes  them  distinctly  visible  on  the  peritoneal 
surface.  The  contents  of  the  duodenum  consist  of  a  pasty  mass,  more 
or  less  thickly  intermingled  with  blood  clots.  The  intestinal  contents 
sometimes  consist  of  a  cream-colored  pasty  mass,  or  may  be  brownish 
red  or  even  green  in  color.  Lesions  are  very  rarely  observed  in  other 
portions  of  the  intestines.  The  ureters  are  noticeable  in  practically  all 
cases  by  reason  of  the  yellow-colored  urates  that  they  contain.  The 
nasal  cavity,  pharynx  and  oral  cavity  frequently  contain  a  viscous 
mucous  fluid,  probably  regurgitated  from  the  crop. 

The  field  notes  on  twenty-one  post-mortem  examinations  reveal  refer- 
ence to  the  hemorrhages  upon  the  heart  in  twenty-one  cases;  puncti- 
form necroses  of  liver,  fifteen  cases;  hemorrhages  in  duodenum,  seven 
cases;  and  discoloration  of  skin  in  six  cases.  The  presence  of  a  gelati- 
nous exudate  within  the  pericardium  was  noted  twice.  A  fibrinous 
exudate  in  the  pericardium  occurred  the  same  number  of  times.  Hem- 
orrhages in  the  peritoneum  other  than  those  visible  through  the 
mucosa  of  the  duodenum  occurred  but  twice.  In  one  case  hemorrhages 
were  abundantly  scattered  throughout  the  muscles  of  the  trunk  and  legs. 

Fowls  inoculated  subcutem  with  cultures  exhibit  on  post-mortem 
examination  the  punctiform  hemorrhages  on  the  heart  and  the  hem- 
orrhages in  the  mucosa  of  the  duodenum  exactly  as  in  cases  infected 
naturally. 

Two  turkeys  fell  victims  to  the  disease.  The  symptoms  and  lesions 
did  not  differ  markedly  from  those  in  hens.  Notes  on  the  post-mortem 
examinations  of  these  cases  are  appended: 

October  14.  Hen  turkey  observed  to  be  sick.  Temperature  about  two  hours  before 
death,  112.6°  F.  (44.8°  C);  no  reddening  of  skin.  Heart  muscle  contains  some  puncti- 
form hemorrhages.     The  cseca,  mesentery,  and  intestine  are  covered  with  a  yellowish 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  15 

fibrinous  exudate.  The  intestines  contain  dark,  pasty  feces.  The  vessels  on  the  peri- 
toneal surface  of  the  gizzard  are  congested.  The  lungs,  proventriculus,  intestines, 
kidneys,  and  spleen  are  not  visibly  altered. 

October  14.  Gobbler,  found  soon  after  death.  There  is  no  discoloration  of  skin. 
Lungs  are  congested  and  dark  red  in  color.  The  dorsal  aspect  of  the  lungs  is  covered 
with  a  gelatinous  exudate,  which  liquefies  upon  exposure.  The  oesophagus  and  crop  are 
normal.  The  proventriculus  contains  a  greenish,  transparent,  gelatinous  substance 
mixed  with  blood  clots.  The  gizzard  contains  a  few  blood  clots.  The  mucosa  of  the 
intestines,  from  the  gizzard  as  far  as  the  cseca,  are  congested.  The  duodenum  contains 
yellowish,  pasty  mucus,  with  occasional  clots  of  blood.  The  caeca  are  distended  with 
material  of  normal  appearance.  Vessels  on  the  peritoneal  surface  of  the  duodenum 
and  of  mesentery  are  congested. 

Blood  Counts. — In  comparing  the  lesions  of  infectious  leukaemia  and 
of  fowl  cholera,  Moore8  has  pointed  out  the  desirability  of  a  study  of 
the  blood  in  the  latter  disease.  Consequently  the  opportunity  was 
seized  to  make  the  blood  counts  tabulated  below: 


TABLE  IV. 

Blood  Counts  of  Fowls  Infected  by  Ingestion*  and  Infected  Naturally. 

Fowl.  White.  Red.  Remarks.  Temperature 

No.  3 23,000        2,290,000        3  days  after  exposure  to  infection 44.8°  C. 

No.  3 20,000        2,800,000        4     "        "              "          "          "         .—  43.7°  C. 

No.  6 37,000        3,930,000        3     "        "              "          "          "         — .  43.3°  C. 

No.  8 87,000        4,490,000        3    "        "              "          "          "         — -  42.8°  C. 

No.  8 101,000        2,960,000        4    "        "              "          "          "         ._..  42.2°  C. 

A 58,000        1,710,000        Naturally  infected 42.8°  C. 

B 45,000        1,925,000  "  "         


TABLE  V. 

Blood  Counts  of  Appareritly  Healthy  Fowls. 

Fowl.  White.  Red. 

No.  11 24,000  2,980,000 

No.  12 26,300  2,987,000 

No.  14 36,000  3,115,000 

No.  15 52,000  3,980,000 

No.  16 61,000  3,920,000 

No.  17 30,000  2,380,000 

No.  18 24,000  3,620,000 

In  the  case  of  No.  8,  a  marked  diminution  of  the  red  corpuscles  and 
increase  of  the  white  corpuscles  are  noticeable.  A  comparison  of  the 
counts  of  fowls  A  and  B  with  the  normal  counts  would  lead  to  the 
conclusion  that  a  decrease  of  red  corpuscles  had  occurred  in  cases  of 
natural  infection. 


*  Details  of  the  method  of  infecting  these  fowls  are  given  on  page  4. 


16  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA — EXPERIMENT    STATION. 

TABLE  VI. 

Changes  in  the  Blood  Counts  of  Fowls  Inoculated  with  Cultures  of  the  Fowl  Cholera  Organism. 

Fowl.  White.  Red.  Remarks.  Temperature. 
No.  11  24,000  2,980,000  Normal.  Injected  .5  c.c.  24-hr.  cult,  subcutaneous.  42.3°  C. 
No.  11      19,000      3,380,000      23  hours  after  inoculation.   Died  2  hours  later 43.3°  C. 

No.  12      26,300      2,987,000      Normal.    Injected  .5  c.c.  24-hr.  cult,  subcutaneous.    42.3°  C. 
No.  12      27,000      3,500,000      24  hours  after  inoculation.   ,  Died  next  day 42.3°  C. 

No.  13    129,000      3,300,000      Before  inoculation.     Injected  .015  c.c* 42.3°  C. 

No.  13    142,000      3,310,000      24  hours  after  inoculation 42.0°  C. 

No.  13    257,000      3,046,000      Died  following  day.     Post-mortem  showed  tuber- 
culosis and  cholera 42.4°  C. 

No.  16      61,000      3,920,000      Normal.     Injected  .01  c.c*  subcutaneous 

No.  16      15,000      1,880,000      36  hours  after  inoculation.     Died  night  after 

No.  17      30,000      2,380,000      Normal.     Injected  .01  c.c*  subcutaneous 

No.  17      22,750      1,590,000      30  hours  after  inoculation 

No.  17      14,500      1,700,000      48  hours  after  inoculation 

The  figures  for  Nos.  11  and  12  reveal  no  marked  change  in  the  rela- 
tive number  of  corpuscles  during  the  short  course  run  by  the  disease 
in  these  cases.  No.  13  shows  a  marked  leucocytosis  in  avian  tubercu- 
losis, increased  by  infection  with  cholera  without  disturbance  of  the 
number  of  red  corpuscles.  No  other  fowl  in  the  list  showed  lesions  of 
tuberculosis  or  other  disease  upon  post-mortem  examination.  Nos.  16 
and  17  show  a  distinct  decrease  of  both  classes  of  corpuscles.  Fowls 
8,  A,  B,  16,  and  17  furnish  evidence  that  a  marked  diminution  of  red 
corpuscles  may  occur.  This  fact  accounts  for  the  pale  appearance  of 
the  blood  commented  upon  by  some  observers. 

In  all  cases  Toisson's  fluid  was  used  for  diluting  in  the  pipette. 
During  the  counting  there  were  noted  bodies  resembling  the  red  cor- 
puscles, but  somewhat  smaller  and,  unlike  them,  were  stained  blue. 
They  occurred  singly  sometimes,  but  more  often  in  clusters,  which  fact 
occasioned  some  embarrassment  during  the  leucocyte  counts.  They 
occur  in  both  normal  and  pathological  blood.  In  mounted  specimens 
of  fresh  blood  they  occur  in  clusters  and  show  a  refractive  nucleus 
with  sharply  defined  border,  surrounded  by  protoplasm  with  a  poorly 
defined  border.  The  protoplasm  is  deficient  in  amount  as  compared 
with  the  red  corpuscles,  and  among  the  clusters  apparently  free  nuclei 
are  observed.  With  the  Wright-Jenner  stain  the  nuclei  behave  in 
general  like  those  of  leucocytes,  but  appear  larger,  while  the  protoplasm 
takes  on  a  pale  blue  color.  The  cells  quite  closely  resemble  those  of 
the  red  corpuscles,  except  that  some  are  more  narrow  and  others  smaller. 

Moore5  has  mentioned  the  fact  of  red  corpuscles  staining  in  Toisson's 
fluid.  Under  the  designation  of  red  corpuscles,  he  has  pictured  cells 
identical  in  morphology  with  those  just  described.  The  present  writer 
has  regarded  the  bodies  in  question  as  atypical  red  corpuscles,  and 
has  ignored  them  in  the  blood  counts.  In  one  specimen  of  patho- 
logical blood  in  which  it  was  fancied  that  they  were  more  numerous 

*  (Jul  in  re  diluted  and  figures  consequently  approximate. 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  17 

than  in  normal  blood,  they  were  counted  with  great  difficulty.  In  this 
instance  400  squares  were  gone  over,  and  the  conclusion  reached  that 
the  sample  contained  54,000  per  cubic  millimeter. 

Phagocytosis  has  not  been  observed  in  mounted  specimens  of  fresh 
blood. 

Culture  media  implanted  from  the  liver,  spleen,  kidneys,  and  heart 
blood  of  fowls  and  turkeys  yielded  cultures  of  a  bacterium  possessing 
the  characters  of  the  Bacterium  septicemias  hemorrhagica?  group.  A 
description  of  the  organism  follows: 

Morphology. — The  individual  cells  are  short,  non-motile  rods,  with 
rounded  ends.  They  usually  occur  singly,  but  a  few  are  seen  in  pairs. 
Spherical  forms  are  numerous  in  actively  growing  cultures.  The  size 
varies  from  .4  to  .6  pi  broad  and  from  1  to  2  pi  long.  A  bipolar  arrange- 
ment of  the  protoplasm  is  demonstrated  when  carbol  fuchsin  and 
alkaline  methylene  blue  stains  are  used.  The  bipolar  staining  is 
noticeable  frequently  in  smear  preparations  from  tissues.  The  presence 
of  a  capsule  is  suggested  by  an  unstained  area  surrounding  each 
organism  when  a  background  of  stain  is  deposited  upon  the  cover  glass. 
The  same  appearance  is  noticeable  in  smear  preparations  from  tissues. 
The  organism  retains  the  stain  but  faintly  when  treated  after  Gram's 
method. 

Biologic  Characters. — The  organism  is  aerobic  and  facultative  anae- 
robic. It  grows  readily  at  37.5°  C,  and  with  much  less  rapidity  at 
room  temperature. 

Agar. — The  colonies  on  one  per  cent  agar,  after  forty-eight  hours 
incubation  at  37.5°  C,  appear  as  round,  smooth,  thin,  shiny  disks,  with 
entire*  border  and  measuring  about  2  mm.  in  diameter.  Under  a  two- 
thirds  objective  they  appear  coarsely  granular  and  show  concentric 
circular  markings.  They  appear  smoky  brown  in  color  by  directly 
transmitted  light,  and  gray  by  reflected  light.  Colonies  beneath  the 
surface  are  usually  lenticular  in  shape,  and  the  granular  appearance  is 
more  marked  under  a  two-thirds  objective  than  in  the  surface  colonies. 
After  twenty -four  hours  the  growth  on  the  agar  slant  culture  is  flat, 
smooth,  shining,  translucent,  grayish  white  by  reflected  light,  and  smoky 
brown  by  transmitted  light,  with  undulate  border.  The  condensation 
water  becomes  decidedly  turbid.  After  the  first  week  of  growth  the 
liquid  clears  somewhat  with  the  deposition  of  a  viscous  sediment.  No 
pellicle  has  been  observed  on  the  condensation  water. 

Glycerine  Agar. — Growth  upon  this  medium  presents  no  features 
distinguishable  from  that  upon  agar  slant. 

Gelatin. — Surface  colonies,  after  about  two  weeks'  growth  at  room 
temperature,  are  round,  vitreous  masses,  with  entire  border  and  smooth 
shiny  surface.  A  large  proportion  of  the  colonies  are  raised,  forming 
a  conical  mass  not  exceeding  1  mm.  in  diameter.     Such  colonies  appear 

*The  descriptive  terms  suggested  by  Chester11  and  by  Kendall12  are  used. 


18  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT     STATION. 

highly  refractive  by  directly  transmitted  light.  Under  a  two-thirds 
objective  the  colonies  have  a  finely  granular  appearance  and  show  con- 
centric circular  markings.  Sub-surface  colonies  are  lenticular  in  shape 
and  granular. 

After  three  days'  growth  under  similar  conditions  the  growth  in 
gelatin  stab  cultures  is  noticeable  as  a  mass  of  closely  aggregated 
colonies  near  the  surface.  After  about  two  weeks  the  surface  growth 
appears  as  a  round,  thin  gray  mass,  with  contoured  surface  and  undulate 
border.  At  the  same  time  the  growth  along  the  whole  length  of  the 
path  of  the  inoculating  needle  appears  as  a  mass  of  closely  aggregated 
distinct  colonies. 

Potato. — Implantations  on  this  medium  have  not  resulted  in  visible 
growth. 

Alkaline  Bouillon. — After  forty-eight  hours  at  37.5°  C.  the  fluid 
becomes  slightly  clouded  and  does  not  clear  up  on  standing,  even  after 
four  months.  In  cultures  two  or  three  days  old  no  sediment  is  depos- 
ited, but  in  older  cultures  a  viscous  sediment  accumulates.  The  reac- 
tion is  alkaline  to  litmus  and  markedly  so  in  old  cultures.  No  pellicle 
is  formed,  but  occasionally  a  circular  bluish  band  of  growth  adheres  to 
the  tube  at  the  level  of  the  surface  of  the  fluid. 

Sugar-free  Bouillon. — Growth  is  similar  to  that  in  alkaline  bouillon. 

Acid  Bouillon. — The  growth  is  similar  in  appearance  to  that  in  alka- 
line, except  that  the  turbidity  is  less  marked  and  no  accumulations 
have  been  noticed  at  either  surface  or  bottom  of  liquid.  Reaction 
becomes  alkaline  in  old  cultures. 

Milk. — No  change  occurs  in  this  medium  during  the  length  of  time 
that  it  is  ordinarily  kept  under  observation. 

Fermentation  Tubes. — (1)  One  per  cent  glucose  bouillon:  The  liquid 
throughout  the  tube  becomes  uniformly  slightly  clouded  in  twenty-four 
hours  at  37.5°  C,  and  remains  so.  The  reaction  becomes  acid  in  two 
days.     No  gas  is  formed.     A  slight  amount  of  viscous  sediment  collects. 

(2)  One  per  cent  lactose  bouillon:  The  character  of  growth  is  similar 
to  that  in  glucose.     The  reaction  remains  alkaline. 

(3)  One  per  cent  saccharose  bouillon:  The  growth  is  similar  to  that 
of  the  two  preceding.  The  reaction  becomes  acid  in  two  days,  but 
eventually  becomes  alkaline  in  cultures  several  weeks  old. 

Dog  Blood  Serum. — After  twenty-four  hours  at  37.5°  C.  the  path  of 
the  needle  is  occupied  by  a  smooth,  shiny,  raised  growth  of  a  color 
determined  by  that  of  the  serum.  The  condensation  water  is  markedly 
turbid.  Six  days  later  the  growth,  as  well  as  the  surface  of  a  pellicle 
on  the  condensation  water,  has  a  coppery  lustre. 

Loffler's  Blood  Serum. — After  twenty-four  hours'  growth  at  57.5°  C.  the 
path  of  the  needle  is  marked  by  a  white,  raised  growth,  with  shiny, 
contoured  or  smooth  surface  and  undulate  border.  The  condensation 
liquid  becomes  decidedly  turbid.     After  several  days  the  surface  of  the 


FOWL    CHOLERA.  19 

growth  becomes  dull.  The  liquid  is  then  observed  to  contain  a  viscous 
sediment  and  to  have  patches  of  pellicle  floating  upon  the  surface. 

Indol. — A  positive  reaction  is  obtained  in  sugar-free  bouillon  cultures. 

Thermal  Death-point. — This  organism  was,  in  two  instances,  de- 
stroyed in  freshly  planted  tubes  of  bouillon  standing  in  water  at  57°  C. 
for  ten  minutes.  Exposure  at  56°  C.  for  the  same  length  of  time  failed 
to  kill  the  organism  in  one  instance,  and  was  fatal  in  another  case. 

Disinfectants. — Duplicate  tests  show  that  a  drop  of  a  24-hour  bouillon 
culture  dried  upon  a  cover  glass  is  sterilized  by  exposure  to  direct  sun- 
light for  an  hour.  A  similar  experiment  in  which  the  organisms  were 
exposed  to  diffused  light  in  a  dark  corner  indoors  indicates  that  the 
organisms  die  in  about  four  days  under  indoor  conditions.  0.25  c.c.  of 
a  24-hour  bouillon  culture  was  added  to  10  c.c.  of  a  1 :  2000  solution  of 
Wyeth's  sublimate  tablets.  A  culture  implanted  after  one  minute 
showed  growth  after  incubation,  but  those  made  at  three,  five,  and  ten 
minutes  were  sterile. 

Animal  Inoculation. — Subcutaneous  or  intravenous  injection  of  fowls 
with  1  c.c.  of  a  24-hour  bouillon  culture  resulted  in  death  in  about 
fifteen  hours.  Doses  as  small  as  0.05  c.c.  killed  in  about  three  days. 
A  young  rabbit  inoculated  with  0.5  c.c.  in  an  ear  vein  was  found  dead 
fourteen  hours  later.  A  guinea  pig  inoculated  with  1  c.c.  subcutem 
was  found  dead  in  fourteen  hours.  Another  receiving  0.5  c.c.  subcutem 
survived  thirty-six  hours.  A  pigeon  swallowing  1  c.c.  died  in  twenty- 
one  hours,  and  another  receiving  0.12  c.c.  subcutem  was  found  dead 
fourteen  hours  later. 

SUMMARY. 

Fowl  cholera  has  been  identified  in  California.  The  results  of  obser- 
vation and  experiments  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  the  disease  is  intro- 
duced into  the  body  through  food  and  probably  also  water  infected 
with  the  bacteria,  causing  the  disease.  Fowls  eat  their  dead  at  every 
opportunity,  which  practice  must  be  strictly  guarded  against  during  an 
outbreak.  Contamination  from  the  infectious  droppings  is  prevented 
by  disinfecting  the  roosting  houses  daily  and  by  feeding  from  troughs 
designed  to  prevent  fowls  from  walking  in  the  feed.  The  same  end  is 
favored  by  moving  infected  colonies  to  fresh  ground.  Possible  infection 
through  the  drinking  water  is  prevented  by  placing  a  weak  solution  of 
corrosive  sublimate  in  the  drinking-water  fountains.  The  prompt 
slaughter  and  thorough  disposal  of  all  sick  hens  during  an  outbreak 
contribute  toward  preventing  the  spread  of  the  disease.  The  evidence 
goes  to  show  that  fowl  cholera  is  a  comparatively  easy  disease  to  con- 
trol; but  disinfection  must  be  continued  after  the  death-rate  becomes 
insignificant. 

The  dissemination  of  the  disease  in  some  cases  is  undoubtedly  due  to 


20  UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA EXPERIMENT     STATION. 

careless  disposal  of  the  dead.     The  movement  of  sick  fowls  is  of  impor- 
tance in  the  same  connection. 

Observations  show  that  it  is  possible  to  take  new  stock  on  land  where 
the  cholera  has  existed  two  weeks  before,  provided  the  buildings  be 
moved  and  disinfected.  This  is  confirmed  by  experiments  in  the 
laboratory,  which  show  that  sunlight  and  disinfectants  rapidly  destroy 
the  bacteria. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


.  Mr.  H.  0.  Woodworth,  foreman  of  the  California  Poultry  Experi- 
ment Station  at  Petaluma,  rendered  efficient  aid  in  carrying  out  the 
sanitary  measures.  He  has  contributed  several  paragraphs  describing 
the  application  of  the  repressive  measures  and  modifications  of  the 
same,  as  suggested  by  his  experience. 

Mr.  L.  B.  Chandler  made  the  blood  counts  of  fowls  11  to  15  inclusive. 

Mr.  A.  R.  Keith  has  assisted  in  preparing  the  description  of  the 
organism. 

REFERENCES. 

1.  Salmon.     Annual  reports  of  the   United   States   Commissioner  of 

Agriculture,  1880-82. 

2.  Perroncito.     Arch,  fur  wiss.  prackt.  Thierheilkunde,  1879,  S.  9. 

3.  Pasteur.     De  l'attenuation  du  virus  du  cholera  dos  poules.     Comp- 

tes  Rendus  des  Seances  de  l'Academie    des    Sciences,  Vol.  XCI 
(1880),  p.  673. 

4.  Moore.     A  study  of  a  bacillus  obtained  from  three   outbreaks    of 

fowl  cholera.     Bulletin  No.  8,  United  States  Bureau  of  Animal 
Industry. 

5.  Moore.      Infectious    leukaemia   in    fowls — a    bacterial  disease   fre- 

quently mistaken  for  fowl  cholera.     Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau 
of  Animal  Industry,  1895-96. 

6.  Higgins.     Notes  on  an  epidemic  of  fowl  cholera  and  upon  the  com- 

parative  production    of    acid    by    allied    bacteria.     Journal   of 
Experimental  Medicine,  Vol.  Ill  (1898),  p.  651. 

7.  Friedberger  and  Frohner.     Infective  diseases  of  animals.     Trans- 

lated by  Hayes,     p.  103. 

8.  Curtice.     Fowl  typhoid.     Bulletin  No.  87,  Agricultural  Experiment 

Station,  Kingston,  Rhode  Island. 

9.  Moore.     The  pathology  and  differential  diagnosis  of  infectious  dis- 

eases of  animals,  pp.  77  and  98. 

10.  Ritzer.     BehandlungundVerhutungderGeflugelseuchen.   Deutsche 

Landwirthschaftliche  Presse,  XXX  Jahrgang,  Nr.  71,  S.  614. 

11.  Chester.     Manual  of  determinative  bacteriology,  pp.  16-25. 

12.  Kendall.     Report  of    the  American    Public    Health    Association, 

1902,  |».  481. 

o 


